Kitayama 940 AD

[Duncan Head]

We haven't had a Japanese example here yet, so:

Battle of Kita-yama, 940 AD

Eastern Japanese rebels (Taira no Masakado) vs Heian Imperial Japanese (Taira no Sadamori, Fujiwara no Hidesato)

Background
Taira no Masakado had been in rebellion in eastern Japan since 935, originally as a result of personal quarrels with powerful local figures. In 940, now proclaimed "New Emperor" and controlling several eastern provinces, he was campaigning against local opponents led by his cousin Taira no Sadamori. After some successes Masakado dismissed much of his 5,000-man army, which had been partly recruited in conquered provinces, leaving only 1,000 men from his base in Shimōsa province. One of Masakado's detachments was then surprised and defeated by an unexpected 4,000-strong Imperial force under Fujiwara no Hidesato; following up, Sadamori and Hidesato together defeated Masakado himself at Kawaguchi late in the same day. Masakado fell back on Shimōsa, pursued by his combined enemies. They burned his residence, and he prepared for battle on the northern slopes of Mount Kita.

Numbers
Reportedly reduced to 400 rebels against about 3,300 Imperialists for the final battle.

Sources

1. Shōmonki:
Shōmonki is regarded as the first of the mediaeval Japanese "war tales". A note at the end suggests that it was written in the year 940, so would be contemporary. The translation here is mostly from Rabinovitch (1986).

On the following morning Masakado put on his helmet and armour and tried to think where he could find a secluded refuge. He harboured rebellious and evil thoughts, and had his mind set on committing outrages like those of Wei Fang. But Masakado's regular army of 8,000 men had failed to assemble on that day and he found himself in command of a mere four hundred or so. While waiting for the other soldiers to arrive, they assembled in battle formation at the foot of Mount Kita in Sashima district and kept a sharp lookout for the enemy. ...

... In mid-afternoon on the 14th the two sides engaged in combat. The New Emperor [Masakado] had the wind in his favour, while Sadamori, Hidesato and the others were in an unfavourable position downwind. A fierce wind whistled through the trees, making the earth's hollows resound and sending clods of dirt flying through the air. The New Emperor's southern shields fell over forwards; Sumitomo's northern shields collapsed on the faces of his troops. Because of this difficulty, both sides put aside their shields and did battle without them.

In the midst of the fighting, Sadamori's centre unit suddenly changed its position of attack. The New Emperor's men responded by launching a counter-attack on horseback; pursuing and scattering the enemy, they took the lives of more than 80 men. But some 2,900 supporters allied with Sadamori, Hidesato and Tamenori managed to escape from Masakado's men who had set out in hot pursuit. Only 300 or more of Sadamori's finest soldiers now remained at the scene of battle, but even they were at a loss what to do, running around in a state of bewilderment.

Just at that moment the wind suddenly changed direction, giving Sadamori's troops the advantage. As the New Emperor returned to join his main force, he found himself downwind from the enemy. Sadamori, Hidesato and the others fought bitterly with all the strength they could muster. The New Emperor put on his helmet and armour, galloped his charger off to the front, and joined in the fighting himself. But the punishment of Heaven was clearly visited upon him when his horse failed to fly like the wind and he himself lost the skill of Li Lao. Struck by a stray arrow from one of the gods, Masakado perished alone like Chih Yu after fighting his last battle on the "fields of Cholu". Never in this world had a general actually joined in battle and died at the front like Masakado.

2. Konjaku Monogatari:
Konjaku Monogatari, "Tales of Long Ago", is a collection of miscellaneous tales probably compiled in the 12th century. The translation here is from Wilson (1973).

While the New Emperor (Masakado) was lying in hiding north of Sashima thinking to deceive his enemies, Sadamori, beginning with the dwelling of the New Emperor, burned down all the houses of his dependents and followers one by one.

The New Emperor then had only some four hundred warriors because the more than eight thousand soldiers who always followed him were not yet mustered. So he prepared a position on the north mountain of Sashima and awaited the enemy. Sadamori, Hidesato and their men came in pursuit and engaged in battle. At first the New Emperor had the advantage and threw back the warriors of Sadamori, Hidesato and their party, but later these men in turn won the advantage. They fought together without begrudging their lives. When the New Emperor himself engaged in battle and sped on his swift horse, the Punishment of Heaven was openly revealed; his horse no longer ran, his hand lost its skill, and finally, struck by an arrow, he died in the midst of the plain. Sadamori, Hidesato and their group rejoiced at this and ordered a fierce warrior to cut off his head. They sent it up to the capital accompanied by an official letter from the province of Shimotsuke.

3. Fusō ryakki:
Fusō ryakki is a history of Japan compiled c.1150 by the priest Kōen. The "trophy list" below suggests it drew on official records. This passage is not a direct source translation, but it seems worth quoting if only as a check on numbers.

Nearly half the warriors who had stood with Masakado at the start of the day – 197 men – perished with him. The Hitachi and Shimozuke warriors collected their heads, along with 300 shields, 199 bows and quivers, 51 swords, and a cache of "treasonous documents".... (Friday p.140, citing Fusō ryakki 940 2/14).


Commentary
This battle shows the fairly small scale of 10th-century Japanese warfare, and also illustrates its transitional nature: both the earlier tradition of infantry massed behind shield-walls and the newer emphasis on professional mounted archers are present.

Location
The exact location is uncertain. Friday (2008 p.138) mentions several names given in different documents. The battle site "must have been somewhere near what is now Iwai City", even though there is nothing in the area worthy of the name "mountain" ("yama").

Date and time
"The 14th" is the 14th day of the second month, Year 3 of the Tengyō era: that is to say, 25th March, 940. Friday (2008 p.139) says the armies made contact "late in the hour of the sheep (1 to 3p.m.)", so Rabinovitch's "mid-afternoon" may be a paraphrase.

Numbers
The Imperial army combined Hidesato's 4,000 men with Sakamori's force of uncertain size, so perhaps 5,000 men at least. But in the battle itself we hear of 2,900 fleeing, 80 dead, and only 300 remaining, which adds up to about 3,300. Masakado probably never fielded the 8,000 men mentioned in both sources, but Shōmonki does have him leading 5,000 a month or so before the battle. His eventual 400 look to have been severely outnumbered, but Friday suggests that this disparity may have been exaggerated for literary effect. He notes that the 1,000 men whom Masakado led shortly before this battle are called tsuwamono, "warriors"; this is the term usually used at this period élite mounted archers. Hidesato's 4,000 men, by contrast, are called jinpei, or "conscripts". Friday suggests that Shōmonki is comparing the warrior core of Masakado's army, who would be accompanied by lower-status infantry and servants, with the whole manpower of the Imperial army, so that while he was probably outnumbered it was not by as much as the sources suggest.

Tactics
The battle began with both sides fighting behind shields. Archery exchanges from behind walls of standing shields were one of the main tactics of the earlier conscript armies and remained important in the tenth century. Elsewhere in Shōmonki we hear of shield-walls being formed for battle, troops advancing and withdrawing with their shields slung on their backs "in the proper manner", or in retreat with shields dragged behind them, routers dropping their shields as they flee, and defeated troops repairing their shields ready for the next fight. One 10th-century battle described in Konjaku Monogatari may indicate typical shooting ranges: "they set up their shields in lines about 120 yards apart ... both side began shooting arrows at the agreed signal. ... After that each side moved their shields closer, but just as they were about to shoot at each other at close range" – in this case, the battle was called off.

The importance of archery explains the stress placed on favourable wind direction. At Kitayama a sudden gust of wind blew down both sides' shield-walls – so they do not seem to have advanced into close archery range as in the example above. (The sentence about the collapsing shields is Farris' rendering (1992, p.147). Rabinovitch translates "shield(s)" as singular, and says that a literal translation would be "The south side of the New Emperor's shield was swept forward and he was forced off balance, while the north side of Sadamori's shield covered his face" (p.130).) Because the wind came from behind Masakado, his enemies were the worse affected – their shields fell backwards on top of them. Exploiting either this momentary confusion or an ensuing attempt to change formation, Masakado took the opportunity to mount up and charge downhill into the enemy. He succeeded in putting many to flight, but was defeated by a counter-attack as his men returned from pursuit.


References
Farris, William Wayne, Heavenly Warriors: The Evolution of Japan's Military, 500-1300 (Harvard University Press, 1992)

Friday, Karl F, The First Samurai: the life and legend of the warrior rebel Taira Masakado (John Wiley, Hoboken NJ, 2008)

Rabinovitch, Judith N, Shōmonki: The Story of Masakado's Rebellion (Sophia University Press, Tokyo, 1986)

Wilson, William Ritchie, "The Way of the Bow and Arrow. The Japanese Warrior in Konjaku Monogatari" (Monumenta Nipponica 28.2, 1973)

[Patrick Waterson]

Expertly done, Duncan: a model entry and an interesting engagement.