Battlefield signalling

[Erpingham]

In our epic debate on the size of persian armies, Patrick made the following comment in passing

Most armies, with the possible exception of Dark Ages barbarians, will have signals to 'advance' and 'halt', and optionally 'retire', which are transmitted at the speed of sound and/or standard-waving, and will be acted upon within a very short time.

Now, this is probably a fairly common view and turns up in some rules where signalling was actually modelled (the old WRG series, for example).  But what evidence do we have of signalling on the ancient and medieval battlefield?

I have something of an interest in this subject from a medieval point of view and my overall view is that battlefield signalling in anything but the most basic sense was rare.  Trumpet signals were certainly used in camp (there is a standard three stage preparation to strike camp marked by trumpet calls which is often refered to).  Some battlefield "signals" did exist.  As Patrick says, general advance could be signalled by trumpets, but this was in the sense of general blowing of trumpets.  Occassionally there are references to trumpets signalling "rally" to cavalry.  I've not come across "halt" or "retire" though.  Interestingly Macchiavelli wrote on the need to get back to using military music in the way of the ancients (as you might expect), noting that military music of his time was just noise.  Making an inspiring/intimidating noise does seem to have been the main role of medieval military music, rather than signalling.

This is just, of course, one example.  It would be interesting to hear other examples from other times and places.

In terms of the practical outworking of this, we might consider what impact having a working system of signalling might have in terms of modelling.  Is a signal system usually associated with regulars, for example, and can be abstracted into the command and control advantage of regulars?

[Mark G]

I thought flags were more useful than trumpets.

[Justin Swanton]

I personally think some kind of modelling of an orders system is crucial. Battles in our period depend on how orders were understood and executed.

Today I tried a new orders mechanism for Optio at the club, with two games and IMHO successful results. The Optio grid is divided into cells each composed of 10x10 squares. Cells placed next to each other replicate the grid pattern. These cells further subdivide into segments, each 5x5 squares. The segments and given number and letter co-ordinates rather like a chessboard, as shown below:

An Optio army has one general and about 3 commanders or so. At the beginning of the game each commander is given one or more orders depending on his command rating: a commander rated 1 can be given only 1 order, a commander rated 2 can get 2 orders, and so on.

Orders consist of an octagonal counter, with an arrow on one side and a grid reference on the other:

The counter is placed next to the commander arrow side face up, the arrow pointing to the player's edge of the board. When an order is activated, the arrow is turned to point to the order's destination segment. It obliges the commander himself to head directly for that segment, travelling at least one grid square per movement phase (2 movement phases in a turn) until he reaches the segment. His command follows at the player's discretion - theoretically a commander can head for the destination segment alone and leave his entire command behind.

Once in the destination segment the order counter is flipped over, revealing the coordinates. The commander can move around in the segment under the player's control. His next order is activated at the player's discretion, moving him on to the next segment, and so on.

Orders can be changed only after a current order is completed and the commander is 8 grid squares or less from the general.

There are also general advance or retirement orders. The player declares a general advance: all current orders are cancelled. The orders counters' arrows are turned to face either nearest enemy or the enemy side of the mapboard and the commanders immediately start moving accordingly. For retirement orders, the arrows point to the player's own edge or the side edges if nearer.

In the two games we played the orders worked well. One commander unwisely advanced ahead of his mounted troops. These were charged by elephant and obliged to evade beyond the command distance of the commander, who had to continue in the direction of his orders without his men until fresh orders from the general brought him back into the battle. Moral of the story - a commander needs to stay with his men.

In a second game the general was killed, obliging the commander on the other wing to stay in his segment and continue the fight from there. His side still won the game.

[Erpingham]

Interesting as usual Justin.  It seems to me (correct me if I'm wrong) that you bundle together all forms of order giving; sound signals, flag signals, written, verbal?

[Erpingham]

Having a little spare time today, I went back to my books and did discover references to a medieval signal to withdraw from the field.  Froissart mentions it at Rosebeke and Cocherel.  In both cases, it is not a signal used in contact.  I also came across a reference at Woeringen to a signal at the end of the day for "Grub up" - again essentially a non-combat signal.

BTW, I got sidetracked into reading about Cocherel - this may yet form another of our "Odd battles of the Hundred Years War".  A small affair but with a strong cast

[Sharur]

Results from the first three pages of a quick Google search using "battlefield signals in ancient warfare":

*Ancient Warfare 3.6 had the theme "Carnyx, cornu and signa: battlefield communications", so likely worth a look;

* This paper available as a free download from academia.edu (you need to sign-up for the site, but that's pretty painless as it's free too), "The Use of Musical Percussion Instruments in Ancient Eastern Warfare: the Parthian and Middle Asian Evidence", by Valerii P. Nikonorov;

* An article by William R. Trotter from the June 2005 issue of Military History magazine, "The Music of War" available on the History.net website. Very readable, albeit a little brief in its coverage, and without references;

* A direct-link free PDF download to a paper by R. Cross, "Bold as brass: 'brass instruments' in the Roman army", available here;

* Comments on and around page 8 of John Wallace and Alexander McGrattan's book "The Trumpet" based on text from the Dead Sea Scrolls' "War Scroll", the book partly available online via Google Books here. Although this is from a religious text, it seems probable the description was based on actual battlefield examples. From that:

The trumpets of Summons shall sound for disposal in battle formations and to summon the foot-soldiers to advance when the gates of war shall open; and the trumpets of Alarm shall sound for massacre, and for ambush, and for pursuit when the enemy shall be smitten, and for retreat from battle.

and

* This paper, again a freely downloadable PDF, from the Jewish Bible Quarterly website, "Signalling in Biblical Warfare and Moses' Role as Military Commander", by S. H. Blondheim and Uri C. Cohen.

Should be something there or in the references to help make some progress, I'd hope!

[Justin Swanton]

Interesting as usual Justin.  It seems to me (correct me if I'm wrong) that you bundle together all forms of order giving; sound signals, flag signals, written, verbal?

Yes. I wanted to keep things as simple as possible. One refinement that emerged from playtesting is that a commander in the execution of his order is not obliged to continue advancing into charge or shooting range of enemy bases. He can stop, arrange his own troops to clear a path before him, then continue in the direction his orders take him. But he cannot move in any other direction. Orders BTW must be such that a commander moves in one of the eight directions of the grid. If he wants to move one segment up and two segments across he will need two orders, one moving him diagonally and the other straight across.

His troops always remain free to move wherever the player wants them to go, but if they move out of command range of the commander, any further movement can only be either a charge against enemy or movement towards the commander in order to get back within command range.

[Dangun]

Vegetius has a paragraph on signaling with instruments... 2.15.
Its unhelpfully vague though... like, "the trumpet sounds the charge and the retreat."

[Duncan Head]

Is V's statement that "the cornu is used only to regulate the movements of the signa" the origin of the theory that the trumpet-blast was used to draw the soldiers' attention to the standard, which then signalled the manoeuvre required? Or is there another source for that?

[aligern]

I was trying to dig out the relevant quote from Procopius where Belisarius is besieging Auximum or is it Ariminum and  he are troubled by Gothic ambushes and he femembers that the Ancients used trumpet signals for recalls and B agrees to train the men to obey a trumpet signal. This , of course, implies that such signals had fallen into disuse.
There is an advantage that flags and signa have over trumpets. If the trumpets sound the same and one plays retreat for a particular unit how does the soldier know that this is his unit and not another. Using the trumpet to direct attention to the flag has the advantage that the soldier knows his flag and can see what it is signalling.
Must say I always felt that VIth edition's plethora of orders and signals was a bit of a nonsense. At least once I fought someone who had sheets of conditional orders forseeing every situation. 
Roy

[Mark G]

Pre gunpowder you could count on most battlefields being visible enough for a go flag to work.

Obviously, once you start, dust becomes an issue, but the basic hold vs attack should always work, and detail under that involved pre battle planning.

Noise is always at risk of being drowned out for army level signals.

So I can believe trumpets to draw a unit to check what that units flag is telling them.  But not to signal an army command.

[Patrick Waterson]

Is V's statement that "the cornu is used only to regulate the movements of the signa" the origin of the theory that the trumpet-blast was used to draw the soldiers' attention to the standard, which then signalled the manoeuvre required? Or is there another source for that?

Vegetius II.15 (Clark's translation):

"The music of the legion consists of trumpets, cornets and buccinae. The trumpet sounds the charge and the retreat. The cornets are used only to regulate the motions of the colors; the trumpets serve when the soldiers are ordered out to any work without the colors; but in time of action, the trumpets and cornets sound together [i.e. are each used]. The classicum, which is a particular sound of the buccina or horn, is appropriated to the commander-in-chief and is used in the presence of the general, or at the execution of a soldier, as a mark of its being done by his authority. The ordinary guards and outposts are always mounted and relieved by the sound of trumpet, which also directs the motions of the soldiers on working parties and on field days. The cornets sound whenever the colors are to be struck or planted. These rules must be punctually observed in all exercises and reviews so that the soldiers may be ready to obey them in action without hesitation according to the general's orders either to charge or halt, to pursue the enemy or to retire. For reason will convince us that what is necessary to be performed in the heat of action should constantly be practiced in the leisure of peace. "

The Latin:

"Habet praeterea legio tubicines cornicines bucinatores. Tubicen ad bellum vocat milites et rursum receptui canit. Cornicines quotiens canunt, non milites sed signa ad eorum obtemperant nutum. Ergo quotiens ad aliquod opus exituri sunt soli milites, tubicines canunt, quotiens mouenda sunt signa, cornicines canunt; quotiens antem pugnatur, et tubicines et cornicines pariter canunt. Classicum item appellatur quod bucinatores per cornu dicunt. Hoc insigne videtur imperii, quia classicum canitur imperatore praesente vel cum in militem capitaliter animadvertitur, quia hoc ex imperatoris legibus fieri necesse est. Sive ergo ad vigilias vel agrarias faciendas sive ad opus aliquod vel ad decursionem campi exeunt milites, tubicine vocante operantur et rursus tubicine admonente cessant. Cum autem mouentur signa aut iam mota figenda sunt, cornicines canunt. Quod ideo in omnibus exercitiis et processionibus custoditur, ut in ipsa pugna facilius obtemperent milites, sive eos pugnare sive stare sive sequi vel redire praeceperint duces; siquidem ratio manifesta sit semper in otio debere fieri quod necessario faciendum videtur in proelio."

From the Latin Library Epitoma Rei Militaris, which employs a different numbering system (II.15 is II.22 here).  It also employs 'u' for 'v' throughout (adjusted above).

The gist appears to be that the hornblowers (cornicines) are used for in-battle control of specific units (each of which follows its signum, standard) while the trumpeters (bucinatores) are employed for general signals affecting the whole army.  If one hears a horn blowing but cannot make out the signal, one knows it is intended for somebody else - if it were intended for one's own unit a closer horn-blower would be sounding - but the strident trumpet blasts would be distinguishable above almost any noise and would grab everyone's attention.

The versatility of the horn as a musical instrument compared to a (valve-less) trumpet would allow it a wider repertoire of calls.

[Erpingham]

I was trying to dig out the relevant quote from Procopius where Belisarius is besieging Auximum or is it Ariminum and  he are troubled by Gothic ambushes and he femembers that the Ancients used trumpet signals for recalls and B agrees to train the men to obey a trumpet signal. This , of course, implies that such signals had fallen into disuse.

A quick google found this incident in Chapter 2 of The Trumpet by John Wallace & Alexander McGrattan, where the place is identified as Arcona.  Interestingly, they refer to several references in Byzantine military manuals on the use of horns and trumpets (not entirely consistent).  One source states that each unit should have 4 men to transmit orders - two by voice, one by trumpet, one by signal.  Alas, the preview doesn't contain the footnotes  

[Duncan Head]

One source states that each unit should have 4 men to transmit orders - two by voice, one by trumpet, one by signal.  Alas, the preview doesn't contain the footnotes

Asklepiodotos suggests three:

The supernumeraries were formerly attached to the company, as their name (ektaktoi) indicates, because they were not included in the number of the company: an army-herald, a signalman, a bugler, an aide, and a file-closer. The first was to pass on the command by a spoken order, the second by a signal, in case the order could not be heard because of the uproar, the third by the bugle, whenever the signal could not be seen for the dust; the aide was there to fetch whatever was needed, while the supernumerary file-closer was to bring up the straggler to his position in the company.

[Dave Beatty]

The Bible is replete with battlefield signalling.  Exodus 17:9 (Moses standing on a hill with his staff raised) might be a first example, Numbers 2:2 details standards and banners, Numbers 10:1 details use of silver trumpets to signal assembly and breaking camp ("if only one is sounded, the leaders... are to assemble before you.  When a trumpet blast is sounded, the tribes camping on the east are to set out. At the sounding of a second blast, the camps on the south are to set out. The blast [Hebrew taqa - Strong's 8628] will be the signal for setting out. To gather the assembly, blow the trumpets, but not with the same signal [Hebrew ruwa, Strong's 7321, to sound an alarm, make noise, shout].  Numbers 10:9, "When you go into battle... sound a blast [or "signal" - Hebrew ruwa again] on the trumpets."  The horns used at Jericho were rams horns (Josua 6:4, Hebrew shofar Strong's 7782) not the silver horns.  When attacking Ai and Bethel, Joshua arranged a visual signal of a burning city to signal a counterattack. In Judges 3:27, Ehud blew [Hebrew taqa again] a trumpet [or horn, Hebrew shofar Strong's 7782] to gather his men.

While details are skimpy, various trumpets and visual signals were used to effect command and control of Israelite armies.